Wolf monitoring in Scandinavia: evaluating counts of packs and reproduction events

Large carnivores are elusive and use large areas, which causes monitoring to be challenging costly. Moreover, management reduce conflicts simultaneously ensure long-term population viability require precise estimates. In Scandinavia, the of wolves (Canis lupus) is primarily based on counting packs, identifying reproduction, genetically territorial from noninvasive DNA samples. We assessed reliability wolf in Scandinavia by estimating detectability pairs, reproduction. Our data, comprising snow-tracking data DNA-identified individuals 2005–2016, covered 11 consecutive winter seasons (Oct–Mar). Among 343 cases where we identified a pack, were also detected same area during previous season 323 (94.2%) cases. only 6 remaining 20 cases, there was no prior knowledge area. 328 reproduction events (litter born pack), 97% period rest ≥1 year later kinship assessments all DNA-detected individuals. These results suggest that failed detect few packs with followed breeding. Yearly continuous updates pedigree allowed us retrospectively identify not earlier.